Learning and Development: Revision Notes

L&D builds the capabilities needed to execute strategy, but it is only one performance lever. Knowledge is understanding, skill is applied ability built by practice, ability is broader capacity, and a competency combines them with behaviour at defined proficiency levels. Training builds current-role skills, development prepares for future roles, education is broad and formal.

Diagnose before training. Mager and Pipe ask whether the gap matters, whether expectations are clear, resources available, performance rewarded, feedback given, and whether people could perform “if their lives depended on it”; if they could, it isn’t a skill problem. Gilbert’s Behaviour Engineering Model splits causes into environment (information, instrumentation, motivation) and individual (knowledge, capacity, motives); most problems sit in the environment, and training fixes only individual knowledge.

Knowles’ andragogy: adults need to know why, are self-directed, bring experience, learn what helps with real situations, are problem-centred and internally motivated. Kolb’s cycle: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation, active experimentation. Matching teaching to learning styles is not supported by evidence (Pashler et al., 2008). Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve shows fast loss without reinforcement; spaced practice and retrieval practice (quizzing) improve retention. Bandura: people learn by observing others. 70-20-10 (McCall, Lombardo and Eichinger, CCL) is a heuristic from executives’ recollections, not a measured ratio.

TNA (McGehee and Thayer, 1961) works at three levels: organisation (where capability is needed: strategy, KPIs, audits, new technology), task (what roles require: job analysis, competencies, SOPs) and person (who has gaps: reviews, assessments, 360s). A competency framework with required levels makes gaps visible. Prioritise by business impact, numbers affected, risk and whether a non-training fix would work better.

Revised Bloom (2001): remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create. Write objectives in ABCD form: Audience, Behaviour (observable verb), Condition and Degree. Weak: “understand POSH”. Strong: “HR executives will apply POSH timelines to three written cases with no errors”.

ADDIE: analyse, design, develop, implement, evaluate; SAM (Michael Allen) uses rapid prototypes and iteration. Gagné’s nine events: gain attention, state objectives, recall prior knowledge, present content, guide, practise, give feedback, assess, support retention and transfer. Blended learning combines methods; microlearning supports spaced practice.

Choose methods by objective: knowledge through e-learning and lectures; skills through demonstration, practice and feedback (role-play, simulation, on-the-job training); behaviour through real practice, coaching, 360s and stretch assignments. Coaching is goal-focused, question-led and coachee-driven; mentoring is long-term and advice-based; training teaches set content. GROW: Goal, Reality, Options, Will. Reverse mentoring was popularised at GE; action learning (Revans) uses real problems.

Transfer (Baldwin and Ford, 1988) depends on learner characteristics, training design and above all the work environment, especially the manager. Brief participants before, practise on real tasks during, and follow up, give opportunities and recognise application after.

Kirkpatrick: reaction (feedback forms), learning (pre/post tests), behaviour (observation and 360 after three to six months) and results (KPIs after six to twelve months). Reaction is only weakly related to learning and behaviour (Alliger et al., 1997). New World Kirkpatrick designs backwards from results. Phillips ROI = (benefits − costs) ÷ costs × 100; isolate effects with control groups, trend analysis or adjusted estimates. Example: ₹20 lakh cost, ₹50 lakh isolated savings gives 150% ROI and a 2.5 benefit–cost ratio. Brinkerhoff’s Success Case Method studies the best and worst outcomes.

The Leadership Pipeline (Charan, Drotter and Noel, 2001) describes six passages from managing self to managing the enterprise; the first, managing others, is the most common failure point, which first-time manager programmes address. Methods include stretch roles, action learning, coaching, mentoring, 360s, programmes and development centres.

An LMS administers courses; an LXP curates and recommends content against a skills taxonomy; AI adds personalisation and tutoring; VR supports hazardous-task practice.

India: corporate academies (Infosys Mysuru, Tata Management Training Centre, group academies), apprenticeships and Skill India, large-scale AI reskilling in IT services, and BRSR training disclosure. Measure beyond hours and spend: application rate, time to proficiency, internal fill rate and KPI change for trained versus untrained groups.